Geography @ NumptyNerd
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October 2020
Is Hydrogen the fuel of the future?
A Toyota hydrogen fuel cell concept vehicle on display at Megaweb Toyota City Showcase in Tokyo. Source: Darren Halstead, Unsplash.
Hydrogen is back in fashion.
With the rise of electric cars, the hydrogen economy has taken something of a backseat. However, powerful new developments in technology have now put hydrogen back on the agenda for investors, governments and environmentalists.
Green hydrogen is made by using renewable energy, such as wind or solar power. Currently, most hydrogen is made from fossil fuels and is known as blue hydrogen.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element around. All you need to do is pass an electrical current through water and bubbles of hydrogen will appear. Likewise, when hydrogen is combusted it returns clean water to the environment.
Wind and solar have obvious environmental advantages but there is the problem of storing electricity for use when the sun does not shine and the wind does not blow. The idea is to be able to use cheap renewable electricity to make hydrogen for use in homes, planes, trains and cars.
It sounds all so easy but the devil is in the detail. Converting electricity into hydrogen can be expensive, and so far lithium battery storage has been a more competitive option for motorists.
Green Hydrogen is set to become cheaper, much cheaper.
New technology means that hydrogen can now be produced 80% cheaper than last year. Electrolysers in China are oncourse to produce green hydrogen at under $2 a kilogram. With prices this low, the hydrogen economy is expected to create a multibillion pound green economy employing thousands of workers in a sustainable industry.
Australia with its huge potential for cheap solar power and the United Kingdom with its huge capacity to produce electricity from offshore wind farms are both racing to establish a competitive advantage in the new hydrogen economy. Germany, along with the backing of the European Union, is also investing in clean hydrogen production as a way to develop a green economy post pandemic.
Hydrogen also has the advantage that it can be converted into ammonia and then shipped around the world. Those countries with an established lead in renewable energy are forecast to become global players in the hydrogen economy.
The EU intends that 25% of its energy will come from hydrogen by 2050. While, European plane maker, Airbus has revealed plans to build hydrogen powered planes by as early as 2035.
With the rise of electric cars, the hydrogen economy has taken something of a backseat. However, powerful new developments in technology have now put hydrogen back on the agenda for investors, governments and environmentalists.
Green hydrogen is made by using renewable energy, such as wind or solar power. Currently, most hydrogen is made from fossil fuels and is known as blue hydrogen.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element around. All you need to do is pass an electrical current through water and bubbles of hydrogen will appear. Likewise, when hydrogen is combusted it returns clean water to the environment.
Wind and solar have obvious environmental advantages but there is the problem of storing electricity for use when the sun does not shine and the wind does not blow. The idea is to be able to use cheap renewable electricity to make hydrogen for use in homes, planes, trains and cars.
It sounds all so easy but the devil is in the detail. Converting electricity into hydrogen can be expensive, and so far lithium battery storage has been a more competitive option for motorists.
Green Hydrogen is set to become cheaper, much cheaper.
New technology means that hydrogen can now be produced 80% cheaper than last year. Electrolysers in China are oncourse to produce green hydrogen at under $2 a kilogram. With prices this low, the hydrogen economy is expected to create a multibillion pound green economy employing thousands of workers in a sustainable industry.
Australia with its huge potential for cheap solar power and the United Kingdom with its huge capacity to produce electricity from offshore wind farms are both racing to establish a competitive advantage in the new hydrogen economy. Germany, along with the backing of the European Union, is also investing in clean hydrogen production as a way to develop a green economy post pandemic.
Hydrogen also has the advantage that it can be converted into ammonia and then shipped around the world. Those countries with an established lead in renewable energy are forecast to become global players in the hydrogen economy.
The EU intends that 25% of its energy will come from hydrogen by 2050. While, European plane maker, Airbus has revealed plans to build hydrogen powered planes by as early as 2035.
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What’s wrong with lithium?
Lithium production is concentrated in a small number of countries, such as Bolivia, where huge volumes of precious water are needed to extract the rare metal from salt pans. In many low income countries, the lithium boom has created a powerful elite who are able to circumvent weak environmental laws, leaving poor communities to bear the cost of devastating pollution and water shortages. Lithium is a finite resource and many question if there will be enough lithium to build all the batteries required in the future. Also, batteries are heavy and are not as energy dense as hydrogen - qualities that make batteries less than ideal for major lang-haul flights. Although lithium has a current price advantage over hydrogen, environmentalists are quick to point out that the price of lithium would be much higher if environmental costs were to be added to the bill. |
Salt pans in the Uyuni salt desert in Bolivia. Source: Alexander Schimmeck, Unsplash.
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Further Reading
Nikkei Asia: Japan and EU race to develop 'green hydrogen'.
Guardian News: ‘Green hydrogen’ from renewables could become cheapest ‘transformative fuel’ within a decade.
The Middle-Aged Kingdom
China’s average age will soon overtake that of the USA
Growing old before getting rich? Photo by Christie Kim, Unsplash
In 2020, the median age in China will be greater than that in the United States (United Nations data). China is likely to get old before it gets rich. By 2050 the average age in China will be 50, in America 42 and a mere 38 in India.
According to UN data, China is ageing much faster than its competitors in North America and Europe. Like Japan, China is growing old but without the wealth that many Japanese people enjoy. In China, men retire at 60 (50 for women), but raising the retirement age risks a backlash. In the UK, the retirement age is 66 years. Problematic Dependency Ratio China is now suffering from the long term impact of its notorious one-child policy. China will have gone from nine working-age adults per retired person in 2000 to just two by 2050. Economic Impact China is being forced to invest more money in pension schemes - money that could be spent on development projects. Fewer young people in China means that there is now a labour shortage and wages have increased. Companies are now being forced to compete for young employees. In search of cheaper labour, some foreign companies have recently moved production out of China. Samsung has stopped production in China to create the world's biggest smartphone factory in India. Thailand and Vietnam are now competitive locations for manufacturing hi-tech products.
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China's Position as a Middle Income Country
Data shows selected countries in rank order, per capita GDP, 2018 
Source: International Monetary Fund, 2019.
China's status as the world's second largest economy can be beguiling. With a population of 1.4 billion China needs a large economy if it is to lift more people out of poverty. |
The Rise of the Superstar City
Geographers in Europe are talking about superstar cities. These are immensely powerful places that have been dubbed the happy face of globalisation. However, behind the smiles and the happy face is a story of winners who create losers.
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Successful European cities are flourishing while nearby towns have fallen behind. Small-town Europe struggles to cope with a collapse in manufacturing employment, while post-industrial cities soar. That's according to researchers based in Brussels who have identified major demographic and economic shifts that are taking place across Europe.
Post-industrial cities, such as Paris, Milan and Amsterdam are thriving because of highly profitable service industries. For example, Germany’s industrial towns, in places such as the Ruhr, fell into decline before the end of the last century, but today we see German cities such as Munich thriving due to an expansion in the service sector of the economy. Wealthy European cities are magnets for the young and talented. The draw of the post-industrial city is causing a brain-drain in more mundane towns across the EU. Whilst prosperous cities attract the young and highly qualified, Europe's backwaters are grappling with the cost of an ageing population. In some cases, this population shift is causing stagnation and a loss of community. This has caused tensions within countries where politicians are seen to favour further investment in successful post-industrial cities, often at the perceived expense of towns that are badly in need of investment. |
European cities have seen a major shift from industrial output to a reliance on tertiary employment. For example, Paris has seen its service economy grow by 20 billion euro.
Structural economic changes in Europe have led to regional divergence – with profitable companies and highly skilled people clustering together in powerful cities such as Paris and Munich, leaving less successful areas behind. |
French Geographers, Christophe Guilluy and Guillaume Faburel, have described these post-industrial “superstar” cities as the “shop window of happy globalisation”. Superstar cities, are home to an inner-city elite, serviced by low-paid workers, living on the peripheries of the city. “The traditional working classes no longer live where the good jobs and wealth are created,” says Guilluy.
A landscape of post-industrial decline in Germany. Photo by Leon Seibert, Unsplash.
Milan - A Superstar City
Milan claims to be Italy’s richest city. Milan is a superstar that's become Italy’s leading post-industrial city. It is a magnet that has attracted young and talented people, not only from Italy but from across Europe and beyond. This has created a new Milan which is the epitome of “happy globalisation” that is no longer functioning like a traditional Italian city. The new citizens of Milan are likely to be global, open, liberal and tolerant. Milan’s burgeoning LGBT communities flourish in Porta Venezia.
Expo Village 2015, Milan. Photo by Ricardo Gomez Angel, Unsplash
Milan has become an economic giant that has grown its economy by nearly 20 percent in the past 15 years. Rome struggles to keep up. Milan has also become a target for foreign investment with billions of euro being poured into infrastructure projects and glamorous service industries. Milan has successfully branded itself as the city of Leonardo da Vinci and has recently seen tourism increase by 50 percent. Milan’s superstar status is based on innovative companies that deal in technology, finance and research. This is a place that capitalises on Italy’s reputation as a place for food, music, art, design and cutting edge fashion.
While Milan celebrates as the happy face of globalisation, the rest of Italy looks on with concern. Some Italians complain that Milan has become a global city that is no longer Italian. Surrounding towns have ageing populations and are suffering from being ignored by politicians and investment bankers. In some Italian towns, industrial ruins remain from more glorious times when Italy prospered from manufacturing industry.
Today being the mayor of a superstar city has become an increasingly powerful job. Across Europe, cities rival their own countries as centres of power and influence.
Reducing Air pollution makes Economic Sense
Photo by Malcolm Lightbody on Unsplash
Research recently published by Annals of the American Thoracic Society, illustrate how massive gains have been made by countries and cities when they try to tackle dirty air.
The health costs associated with air pollution, together with issues of climate change, mean that it makes economic sense to seek alternatives to fossil fuels. Many economists point out that such hefty health expenditure, often by people on modest incomes, is a subsidy to the fossil fuel industry. |
White Island: Can We Predict Volcanic Eruptions?
White Island, New Zealand. Photo by Farrah Fuerst on Unsplash
The photograph above was taken by a lucky tourist flying by helicopter over New Zealand's White Island. Although so many tourists were victim of a sudden and deadly volcanic eruption on White Island, scientists are actually much better at predicting volcanic activity than earthquakes. Contrary to popular opinion, earthquakes remain unpredictable acts of nature. In contrast, volcanoes do provide volcanologists with some important clues about possible future eruptions. Each of the following provide scientists with useful data about the behaviour of volcanoes:
Clues may emerge several months ahead of an eruption, but as the 2019 White Island disaster reminds us, volcanoes can erupt suddenly and without warning. |
Numpty Nemo
Wine and Volcanoes
The Santorini caldera is an example of a shield volcano (dormant) that has helped develop some of the world's best vineyards. Photo credit: Leonard G, Wikimedia.
Volcanoes generally get a bad press; perhaps something to do with pyroclastic flows boiling brains, or lahars causing people to drown in mud. But ...
Volcanologist Charles Frankel loves volcanoes and in his new book - Volcanoes and Wine - he explores the productive relationship between volcanoes and some of the world's best wines. Viticulturists have known for millennia that volcanic soils grow the grapes that make some of the very best wines.
Mount Vesuvius, which is famous for swallowing Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79, is today host to Villa dei Misteri, which produces an exceptional red wine wine that sells for over €100 a bottle. Viticulturists use the term terroir to describe the geographical factors that make for a good vineyard. Climate, soils and the underlying geology combine to create the right landscape for the best wines.
From Naples to the Napa Valley, volcanoes have created distinctive mineral-rich soils that have contributed to a terroir that excites oenophiles from around the world. The Greek island of Santorini is home to some of the best volcanic soils in the world. Here, pumice and volcanic ash have weathered under the Mediterranean sun to create soils with just the right pH levels for vines to flourish. Santorini is famous for the Thalassitis dry white, which retails at around €17.99 a bottle.
Volcanologist Charles Frankel loves volcanoes and in his new book - Volcanoes and Wine - he explores the productive relationship between volcanoes and some of the world's best wines. Viticulturists have known for millennia that volcanic soils grow the grapes that make some of the very best wines.
Mount Vesuvius, which is famous for swallowing Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79, is today host to Villa dei Misteri, which produces an exceptional red wine wine that sells for over €100 a bottle. Viticulturists use the term terroir to describe the geographical factors that make for a good vineyard. Climate, soils and the underlying geology combine to create the right landscape for the best wines.
From Naples to the Napa Valley, volcanoes have created distinctive mineral-rich soils that have contributed to a terroir that excites oenophiles from around the world. The Greek island of Santorini is home to some of the best volcanic soils in the world. Here, pumice and volcanic ash have weathered under the Mediterranean sun to create soils with just the right pH levels for vines to flourish. Santorini is famous for the Thalassitis dry white, which retails at around €17.99 a bottle.
- Good geography, it seems, makes good wine. Cheers!
The rise of Asia is a challenge to the power of Europe and North America
The Changing Geography of Poverty in American Cities
American poverty is moving from the cities to the suburbs
"The suburban poor are increasingly likely to be white or Hispanic"
That's according to research published in 2019 by the Economist.
That's according to research published in 2019 by the Economist.
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For example, Harvey, a suburban area south of Chicago, has a poverty rate of 36 percent. After 10 years of population change, there are more poor people in Chicago’s southern suburbs than anywhere else in the city.
Across the United States, the suburban poor outnumber their counterparts found inside the big cities. According to US government estimates, there has been a 56% increase in suburban poverty. There is also a racial dimension: suburban poverty is predominantly white or Hispanic. Whereas inner-city poverty is typically black. Out of sight - out of mind Prosperous American cities have pushed poor citizens away from glamorous down-town areas and dumped them on the urban fringes in concentrated neighbourhoods of disadvantage and despair. Suburban poverty is characterised by high crime rates, mental illness, unemployment, addiction and infant mortality. |
Cleveland Ohio is one of America's poorest cities. Half of Cleveland's children live in poverty. Photo credit: Nicholas Henderson, Flickr.
This is a summary of an article published by The Economist. The full report can be found here: "American Poverty is moving from the cities to the suburbs".
See also: Poverty in America continues to affect people of colour most. |
When the Environment becomes a Fashion Victim
Are people with modest wardrobes more environmentally responsible than those who just can't be seen wearing the same thing ... again and again?
Numpty Nerd explains why dressing like a geography teacher is actually good for the environment. When you shop for new clothes you are likely to cause an environmental impact somewhere on the planet.
Polyester is the word's favourite fibre for fashion. Yet, micro-fibres from laundering polyester clothing is being pumped out of our washing machines and into our sewers. These tiny particles of plastic are adding to the problem of our plastic seas.
Switching to cotton is not always the easy answer. Cotton farming requires plenty of scarce water and nasty pesticides. Cotton farms could be used to grow food to feed more people. Retailers may seduce us with 'natural fibres' but natural fibres use up energy resources when they are spun, knitted or woven, dyed, sewn and then transported, often on a global scale. Plus, cotton fibre needs more of those toxic chemicals to dye them than polyester does.
Numpty Nerd explains why dressing like a geography teacher is actually good for the environment. When you shop for new clothes you are likely to cause an environmental impact somewhere on the planet.
- Textile dyeing is the second largest polluter of potable water globally
- Many textile dyes are toxic and are banned in many countries
- Toxic textile dyes are bio-accumulative
Polyester is the word's favourite fibre for fashion. Yet, micro-fibres from laundering polyester clothing is being pumped out of our washing machines and into our sewers. These tiny particles of plastic are adding to the problem of our plastic seas.
Switching to cotton is not always the easy answer. Cotton farming requires plenty of scarce water and nasty pesticides. Cotton farms could be used to grow food to feed more people. Retailers may seduce us with 'natural fibres' but natural fibres use up energy resources when they are spun, knitted or woven, dyed, sewn and then transported, often on a global scale. Plus, cotton fibre needs more of those toxic chemicals to dye them than polyester does.
Charity shops sell donated clothing to dealers in developing countries. Photo credit: Flickr
Clothing of calamity and Dead Men's Clothes
Donating your clothes so that you have an excuse to buy another new outfit often has a negative global impact.
According to Oxfam, over 70 percent of the secondhand clothes donated from high-income countries ends up somewhere in Africa. Far from being grateful, many African nations are trying to stop rich countries from dumping secondhand clothing on them. In Mozambique, they talk about the "clothing of calamity". Whilst in Kenya, your charity donation is known as the "clothes of dead white people". Get the message - they don't always want your clothes.
Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Sudan and Burundi have been trying to curb annual imports of over $150 million worth of secondhand clothing by implementing tariff barriers. Your kind donation undermines African attempts to develop their own textile industry. Without imports of used clothing, East Africa could develop a textile industry worth up to $3 billion annually. (See the New York Times, "For Dignity and Development, East Africa Curbs Used Clothes Imports").
Landfill or Incinerator?
Booming sales of cheap clothes mean that there are simply not enough poor people to wear all our castoffs. In the United States, according to the Environmental Protection Agency, 84 percent of used clothes in 2012 went into either a landfill or an incinerator. The environmental impact of trashing our unwanted clothes is cause for serious concern:
Swap Til You Drop
Keeping your clothes for longer and buying fewer new clothes is part of a sustainable lifestyle. Wear last year's fashion with pride but you might want to avoid looking like your geography teacher.
Donating your clothes so that you have an excuse to buy another new outfit often has a negative global impact.
According to Oxfam, over 70 percent of the secondhand clothes donated from high-income countries ends up somewhere in Africa. Far from being grateful, many African nations are trying to stop rich countries from dumping secondhand clothing on them. In Mozambique, they talk about the "clothing of calamity". Whilst in Kenya, your charity donation is known as the "clothes of dead white people". Get the message - they don't always want your clothes.
Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Sudan and Burundi have been trying to curb annual imports of over $150 million worth of secondhand clothing by implementing tariff barriers. Your kind donation undermines African attempts to develop their own textile industry. Without imports of used clothing, East Africa could develop a textile industry worth up to $3 billion annually. (See the New York Times, "For Dignity and Development, East Africa Curbs Used Clothes Imports").
Landfill or Incinerator?
Booming sales of cheap clothes mean that there are simply not enough poor people to wear all our castoffs. In the United States, according to the Environmental Protection Agency, 84 percent of used clothes in 2012 went into either a landfill or an incinerator. The environmental impact of trashing our unwanted clothes is cause for serious concern:
- Clothes left to decompose in landfill can leach chemicals into groundwater
- Toxic chemicals used to process natural fibres can get into the environment from the landfill site
- Synthetic fibres take hundreds of years to biodegrade
- Incinerating old clothes sends toxins into the atmosphere
Swap Til You Drop
Keeping your clothes for longer and buying fewer new clothes is part of a sustainable lifestyle. Wear last year's fashion with pride but you might want to avoid looking like your geography teacher.
Every Breath We Take: how fossil fuels are killing us
Each year, air pollution from fossil fuels kills around 40,000 people in Britain. Outdoor air pollution is costing Britain more than £20 billion every year. These are the findings of a major report from the Royal College of Physicians (RCP) published in 2016.
Children are identified as a high-risk group and the RCP are suggesting that when air pollution reaches high levels, people's health should be protected by closing roads, especially around schools. They say we can all reduce air pollution by getting out of our cars and walking, cycling or using public transport.
Children are identified as a high-risk group and the RCP are suggesting that when air pollution reaches high levels, people's health should be protected by closing roads, especially around schools. They say we can all reduce air pollution by getting out of our cars and walking, cycling or using public transport.
"There is clear evidence that early exposure to air pollution can damage the lungs, and increase the risk of lung infections that may be fatal". Source: Royal College of Physicians. Every breath we take: the lifelong impact of air pollution.
Air pollution and climate change
Replacing fossil fuels with greener alternatives will save our lungs and fight against global warming.
The report by the Royal College of Physicians makes it clear that air pollution and climate change have a common cause - fossil fuels.
The report by the RCP, highlights how climate change brings about complex changes in the chemistry of the atmosphere. "Global warming increases levels of O3 in the lower atmosphere, giving rise to airway damage, reduced lung function and increases in respiratory symptoms".
Across Europe, the RCP argues that meeting climate targets (2°C) will bring significant reductions in atmospheric emissions of sulphur and nitrogen pollutants.
Air pollution from fossil fuels is having a deadly impact on our urban living spaces. Making our air safe to breath will have the additional benefit of mitigating against the impacts of global warming.
The report by the Royal College of Physicians makes it clear that air pollution and climate change have a common cause - fossil fuels.
The report by the RCP, highlights how climate change brings about complex changes in the chemistry of the atmosphere. "Global warming increases levels of O3 in the lower atmosphere, giving rise to airway damage, reduced lung function and increases in respiratory symptoms".
Across Europe, the RCP argues that meeting climate targets (2°C) will bring significant reductions in atmospheric emissions of sulphur and nitrogen pollutants.
Air pollution from fossil fuels is having a deadly impact on our urban living spaces. Making our air safe to breath will have the additional benefit of mitigating against the impacts of global warming.
Appropriate technology
Appropriate technology aims to enable low income communities to develop using local skills. Also known as intermediate technology, it is about finding technological solutions that are appropriate to the needs of people in developing countries. Appropriate technology should empower people and contribute towards a sustainable future. The radical economist, EF Schumacher (Small is Beautiful) is often credited as the founder of the appropriate technology movement. Schumacher's legacy is the international NGO - Practical Action.
Photo: GravityLight.org
A world without kerosene lampsFor those without electricity, kerosene lamps are often the only option. However, kerosene produces toxic fumes as well as being a fire safety hazard. GravityLight claims it's a better alternative and is cheaper than solar power which needs expensive batteries.
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Photo: Jesper Hornberg/ Flickr
Sunny delightA 10 litre water container that uses UV light from the sun is providing clean drinking water to people in over 45 countries, mostly in Africa. Many people have access to dirty water, the problem is finding a system to create potable water for drinking and personal hygiene.
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Technology to challenge povertyOther examples of appropriate technology include: micro-hydro power, solar powered water pumps, small-scale wind pumps and biogas.
More information about how these technology projects are helping people challenge poverty can be found at Practical Action. |
Practical Action - Poo Power
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China’s average age will soon overtake that of USA
Growing old before getting rich?: Photo by Clyde He, Unsplash
In 2020, the average age in China will be older than the average American (United Nations data). China is getting old before it gets rich. By 2050 the average age in China will be 50, in America 42 and only 38 in India.
According to UN data, China is ageing much faster than its competitors in North America and Europe. China is ageing as fast as Japan but without the wealth that many Japanese people enjoy. However, in China, men retire at 60 (50 for women), but raising the retirement age risks a backlash. In the UK, the retirement age is 66 years.
China is now suffering from the long term impact of its notorious one-child policy. China will have gone from nine working-age adults per retired person in 2000 to just two by 2050.
Economic Impact
China is being forced to invest more money in pension schemes - money that could be spent on development projects.
Fewer young people in China means that there is a labour shortage and wages have increased. Companies are now being forced to compete for young people.
In search of cheaper labour, some foreign companies have moved production out of China. Samsung has stopped production in China to create the world's biggest smartphone factory in India. Thailand and Vietnam are now competitive locations for manufacturing hi-tech products.
According to UN data, China is ageing much faster than its competitors in North America and Europe. China is ageing as fast as Japan but without the wealth that many Japanese people enjoy. However, in China, men retire at 60 (50 for women), but raising the retirement age risks a backlash. In the UK, the retirement age is 66 years.
China is now suffering from the long term impact of its notorious one-child policy. China will have gone from nine working-age adults per retired person in 2000 to just two by 2050.
Economic Impact
China is being forced to invest more money in pension schemes - money that could be spent on development projects.
Fewer young people in China means that there is a labour shortage and wages have increased. Companies are now being forced to compete for young people.
In search of cheaper labour, some foreign companies have moved production out of China. Samsung has stopped production in China to create the world's biggest smartphone factory in India. Thailand and Vietnam are now competitive locations for manufacturing hi-tech products.
- The sun has now set on China’s demographic dividend. Demography maybe China’s biggest economic challenge.
Climate Change
Asteroids, volcanoes, sunspots and orbital changes have all been researched as natural causes of climate change.
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Global IdentitiesHas globalisation changed your identity?
Find out how your consumer habits might be reshaping your sense of place. |
After the PolicyChina's one-child policy is over but will China be able to cope with the consequences?
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Numpty Nerd provides advanced content for students who share a passion for creating a sustainable planet. We want to understand the world so that we can change it.
Numpty Nerd is a Geography website suitable for IB and Advanced level courses.
Geography is an academic discipline that aims to foster sustainable relationships between people and their environments. We know that climate breakdown and the loss of biodiversity are the defining issues of our time.
Without social justice, sustainable development is not possible. Poverty and inequality are issues that should be high on the environmental agenda. Grass roots decision making and power-sharing are key to fostering sustainable development.
Numpty Nerd is a Geography website suitable for IB and Advanced level courses.
Geography is an academic discipline that aims to foster sustainable relationships between people and their environments. We know that climate breakdown and the loss of biodiversity are the defining issues of our time.
Without social justice, sustainable development is not possible. Poverty and inequality are issues that should be high on the environmental agenda. Grass roots decision making and power-sharing are key to fostering sustainable development.
