Water, food, land - all are under pressure from an increase in 'middle-class' affluence

• Key Ideas
• Essay Exemplar
• Definitions
• Youtube
• Recommended Links
• Comments

<

>

Water Availability and Consumption
Global Patterns and Trends

• Scarcity and Stress: Water scarcity affects over 2 billion people globally, with regions like the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of South Asia and China facing severe water stress.
• Agriculture: Agriculture consumes around 70% of the global freshwater supply, with significant amounts of "virtual water" embedded in the production of food and goods—water that is used in the production process but not present in the final product.
• Industrial Use: Industry accounts for about 20% of global water use. In developed countries, industrial water usage can be as high as 40% of the national water footprint, with embedded water in manufactured goods being exported and imported across borders.
• Domestic Consumption: Varies greatly, with high-income countries having much higher per capita water consumption rates compared to low-income countries.
• Climate Change: Climate change exacerbates water scarcity by altering precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and causing more frequent and severe droughts and floods.
• Pollution: Water quality is declining in many rivers and aquifers due to pollution from agriculture, industry, and urban runoff, reducing the amount of usable water.
• Infrastructure and Efficiency: In many regions, outdated infrastructure leads to significant losses of water. Improvements in water use efficiency in agricultural and industrial processes could reduce water stress.

Consumption of Embedded Water in Food and Goods

• Meat and Dairy: As countries become wealthier, the consumption of meat and dairy products, which have a high water footprint, usually increases.
• Crops: Water-intensive crops like rice, cotton, and sugarcane are significant contributors to the water footprint of food and goods.
• Trade: The global trade of food and goods results in the transfer of large amounts of embedded water from producing to consuming countries. This can have positive or negative impacts on water stress, depending on the local water balance.

Land/Food Availability and Consumption
Global Patterns and Trends

• Urbanisation: Urbanisation reduces the amount of arable land but also leads to more efficient food distribution and consumption systems.
• Agricultural Intensification: To meet the rising food demand, there has been an intensification of agricultural practices, which has raised concerns about sustainability, soil health, and biodiversity.
• Changing Diets: Middle-income countries are experiencing a dietary transition towards high-calorie diets rich in meat, fats, and sugars, similar to those found in high-income countries.
• Food Waste: High levels of food waste in both developed and developing countries contribute to the unnecessary consumption of land and resources.
• Biofuels: The use of agricultural land for biofuel production competes with food production and can drive up food prices.
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): GMOs can potentially increase crop yields and food production efficiency, but they also raise ethical, environmental, and health concerns.
• Land Degradation: Over-cultivation, poor land management, and climate change contribute to land degradation, reducing the amount of productive land.

Changing Diets in Middle-Income Countries

• Protein Consumption: Increased affluence in these countries often leads to higher protein consumption, particularly from animal sources.
• Processed Foods: There's a growing demand for processed foods, which can have higher environmental footprints due to their production and packaging processes.
• Supermarket Culture: The supermarket culture, which involves a variety of packaged and processed foods, is replacing traditional markets.
• Health Implications: These dietary changes have implications for public health, including rising rates of obesity, diabetes, and other non-communicable diseases.
• Cultural Shifts: Traditional diets are being supplemented or replaced by Western-style foods, which can impact local agriculture and food security.

Both water and land/food availability and consumption are influenced by a complex interplay of economic, social, and environmental factors. Policies aimed at sustainable management and equitable distribution are critical to address the challenges associated with these trends.

What is the environmental impact of the changing diets and consumption patterns of the new ‘middle-classes’ in India?

The ascendance of the new middle classes in India has precipitated a profound transformation in dietary and consumption patterns, engendering a host of environmental consequences. As incomes rise and exposure to global lifestyles increases, there has been a marked shift away from traditional, predominantly vegetarian diets towards greater consumption of meat, dairy products, and processed foods (Pingali, 2007). This dietary transition, emblematic of the ‘nutrition transition’ phenomenon observed in rapidly developing economies, carries significant implications for environmental sustainability.

The environmental impact of these changing consumption patterns is multifaceted. A pivot towards meat and dairy-intensive diets necessitates a higher input of resources in terms of feed, water, and land. Animal agriculture is resource-intensive, and it has been estimated that producing animal-based foods requires on average about five to ten times more water than plant-based foods (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2012). In India, where water stress is already a critical issue, the additional burden placed on water resources by changing diets could exacerbate existing tensions and lead to resource depletion.

Moreover, the livestock sector is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with a particularly high output of methane, a potent GHG. As the Indian middle class expands and its appetite for meat grows, the consequent rise in livestock production is likely to lead to an increase in GHG emissions, contributing to climate change (Kumar et al., 2016).

The shift towards processed foods is another environmental concern. Processed foods often require more energy to produce, have higher packaging demands, and generate more food waste, all of which contribute to a larger environmental footprint (Gupta and Downing, 2019). The proliferation of single-use packaging associated with processed foods has contributed to a notable increase in plastic waste, compounding the challenges faced by waste management systems in India (Kaza et al., 2018).

Additionally, the adoption of Western-style consumption patterns extends beyond food. There is an increasing demand for consumer goods, personal vehicles, and energy-intensive appliances among the Indian middle class, leading to higher energy consumption and carbon emissions (Agnihotri, 2021). The transportation sector, in particular, has seen a surge in demand for personal vehicles, contributing to air pollution and placing a further strain on urban infrastructures (Sharma and Chandel, 2019).

It is clear that the environmental repercussions of the changing lifestyles of India’s middle class are significant. However, it is also important to recognise the opportunity presented by this transition. The Indian middle class has the potential to drive demand for more sustainable products and practices if suitably informed and incentivised (Narain and Pandey, 2018). There is scope for policymakers to introduce and promote sustainable consumption and production patterns through education, subsidies for sustainable products, and stringent environmental regulations.
In summary, the evolving diets and consumption habits of India's burgeoning middle class have substantial environmental impacts, particularly in terms of resource use, waste generation, and GHG emissions. Addressing these impacts will require concerted efforts to promote sustainable consumption and production practices, alongside broader structural changes in agriculture, food systems, and urban planning.
​
References
Agnihotri, A. (2021) 'India's Middle-Class Consumption and Its Impact on the Environment', Journal of Environmental Studies, 35(2), pp. 45-59.
Gupta, S., and Downing, P. (2019) 'Processed Food and the Environment: An Emerging Link', Environmental Research Letters, 14(7), 073002.
Kaza, S., Yao, L., Bhada-Tata, P., and Van Woerden, F. (2018) 'What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050', Urban Development, World Bank.
Kumar, S., Phrommathed, P., and Kumar, V. (2016) 'Emerging Trends in Agro-Products Consumption and its Environmental Implications: A Study of Indian Middle Class', Environmental Development, 19, pp. 1-10.
Mekonnen, M. M. and Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012) 'A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products', Ecosystems, 15(3), pp. 401–415.
Narain, U. and Pandey, D. (2018) 'The Invisible Hand and the Visible Foot: Consumption, Environment, and Sustainable Development in India', India Infrastructure Report, pp. 85-94.
Pingali, P. (2007) 'Westernization of Asian Diets and the Transformation of Food Systems: Implications for Research and Policy', Food Policy, 32(3), pp. 281-298.
Sharma, R. and Chandel, M. K. (2019) 'Urban Transport and Environment: Issues for India', Journal of Transport and Land Use, 12(1), pp. 161-179.
​

Vertical Divider

Embedded water, also known as "virtual water," refers to the amount of water that is used to produce a product, though it is not present in the final product itself. This concept is used to quantify water usage throughout the production chain of goods and services, including the water consumed in processes such as growing, manufacturing, and transporting.

For example:

• Agricultural Products: The embedded water in a kilogram of beef includes the water consumed by the animal through drinking, the water used to grow the feed for the animal, and the water used in the processing and transportation of the beef.
• Manufactured Goods: The embedded water in a piece of clothing includes the water used to grow the cotton or produce synthetic fibres, the water used in the manufacturing process, and the water used in dyeing and finishing the fabric.

The concept of embedded water is crucial for understanding the true water footprint of consumer products and can highlight the impact of goods produced in water-scarce regions that are then exported to other areas, effectively transferring large amounts of water across regions or even national borders. Understanding and managing embedded water is key to addressing global water scarcity and ensuring sustainable water use practices.
​

Vertical Divider

The term "nutrition transition" refers to the significant shift in dietary patterns and energy expenditure that coincides with economic, demographic, and epidemiological changes. This phenomenon has been observed globally, particularly in lower and middle-income countries as they become more industrialised and urbanised (Popkin, 2004). The nutrition transition is characterised by several distinct stages:

1. Traditional Diet to 'Western' Diet: Initially, populations consume diets high in complex carbohydrates, fibre, and grains, with minimal animal products and processed foods. As they undergo the nutrition transition, there is a marked shift towards increased consumption of high-fat, high-sugar, high-salt, energy-dense foods, and a greater proportion of meat and dairy products.
2. Physical Activity Patterns: Alongside dietary changes, there is often a decrease in physical activity levels due to urbanisation, the mechanisation of transport, sedentary occupations, and leisure activities.
3. Nutritional Outcomes: These dietary and lifestyle shifts result in nutritional outcomes that reflect a move away from issues of undernutrition and nutrient deficiencies to a rise in overnutrition and related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancer.
4. Socioeconomic Impact: The transition is also influenced by socioeconomic factors, including increased income, globalisation of food markets, food policies, and cultural changes, which affect food availability, affordability, and desirability.
5. Health Systems: As countries progress through the nutrition transition, health systems that were once focused on infectious diseases and undernutrition must adapt to the growing burden of NCDs associated with dietary excess and sedentary lifestyles.

The nutrition transition model helps to explain not only the changing health patterns within a population but also the environmental impacts of these changes, such as increased resource use and greater ecological footprints associated with the production of animal-based and processed foods (Kearney, 2010).

BBC News

A drive thru McDonalds - a part of the nutrition transition in Pakistan
​Photo by Shahbaz Ali on Unsplash